Elements of communication

In his work on the pragmatics of communication, Habermas (1968) states that what is spoken, that is our utterances, have what he describes as pragmatic functions. These functions are:

• to represent something;
• to express the speaker's intentions;
• to establish legitimate interpersonal relations (that is, relations not based on power or domination), (54).

Habermas also outlines four elements in the communication process the purpose of which is to ensure that these pragmatic functions can be achieved. These elements should be in place before communication can take place in a way that avoids distortions:

• saying something intelligibly;
• giving the listener something to understand;
• making yourself understandable;
• achieving understanding with the other person (24).

The aim of communication, in Habermas' view, is agreement. However, this must be worked towards. Habermas argues for four validity claims that we can bring to bear on any discursive communication:

• comprehensibility;
• truth;
• truthfulness;
• rightness (23).

In any communication the speaker and listener must comprehend one another. However, the credibility of the speaker rests on the extent to which the listener judges what is said to be true. But what is said needs to be stated within acceptable norms and values. Without a shared normative context, the speaker and the listener can fall into misunderstanding. If any of the validity claims are in doubt then communicative action will not be achieved.

What is spoken - the utterance - must, Habermas argues (1968:49) therefore be true for the participants and it must represent something 'in the world' be truthful in that it 'expresses something intended' (by the speaker) be right (that is, conform to recognisable social expectations).

We can therefore challenge whether what is said:

• is true;
• is socially or morally appropriate;
• truthfully reflects the speaker's feelings and motives;
• is clear and can be understood.